Background: Nephropathic infantile cystinosis, the most common cause of renal Fanconi syndrome, presents in early infancy with impaired growth, polyuria and polydipsia, and progresses to end stage renal disease during the first decade. Diagnosis is based on corneal examination for cystine crystals, leukocyte cystine content and genetic testing of the CTNS gene. Information on clinical features and genotype of Indian children with cystinosis is limited. Methods: We describe clinical features, renal outcomes and genetic variants in the CTNS gene in Indian children with cystinosis. Results: We included 19 patients with cystinosis from 17 families predominantly presenting with poor growth (95%), polyuria (84%) and refractory rickets (74%). Cystine crystals were present in 84%. Fanconi syndrome was common; two had nephrocalcinosis and 9 presented with eGFR <60 ml/ min/ 1.73 m². Genetic analysis, performed in 11 families, (12 patients) showed 8 variants. Five were reported, pathogenic variants, one was likely pathogenic and two were rare or novel variants of unknown significance. Conclusion: The p.Thr7PhefsTer7 variant, common to five unrelated patients, might be a population hotspot. Eight (42%) patients have been initiated on therapy with cysteamine. Studies with prolonged follow-up are necessary to define renal and extrarenal outcomes and the effect of cysteamine in Indian children.

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Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) refers to backflow of urine from the bladder into the upper urinary tract. Children with high-grade VUR are at risk of recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). It is commonly associated with bladder–bowel dysfunction, necessitating treatment because it further increases the risk of recurrent UTI and results in delayed resolution of VUR. Almost one-third of patients with VUR diagnosed following UTI show renal scarring. It is debated whether scarring in VUR is entirely acquired following UTI or due to dysplasia. The efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis has been variable for the prevention of UTI in children with VUR. A meta-analysis suggests that it might be of some benefit in preventing UTI, but not renal scarring and at cost of bacterial resistance. Due to questionable efficacy and potential risk, use of antibiotic prophylaxis should be based on risk stratification rather than mere presence of reflux. In view of lack of significant improvement in long-term outcomes with current available interventions, there is ongoing debate on the aggressiveness of algorithms for diagnosing VUR following UTI. Long-term complications of VUR include proteinuria, hypertension, and end-stage renal disease. As opposed to previous assumption, the risk of end-stage renal failure and hypertension is fairly small with scarring following UTI.

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Introduction: 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) deficiency is common in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and can affect bone mineralization and cardiovascular morbidity. It is important to treat 25OHD deficiency appropriately in a manner that ensures not only replenishing stores but also sustaining adequate 25OHD levels without causing toxicity. The present study was planned to determine the appropriate dosing regimen for oral cholecalciferol that achieves and maintains normal 25OHD levels in children with CKD stage 2–4 and to assess the effect of various dosing regimens on bone biomarkers, secondary hyperparathyroidism, and vitamin D toxicity. Methods: We present the design of an open-label, multicenter randomized controlled trial conducted across four pediatric nephrology centers in India. Children in CKD stages 2–4 with 25OHD levels <30 ng/ml will be randomized to one of three therapy regimens for oral cholecalciferol (3000 IU daily, 25,000 IU weekly, or 100,000 IU monthly) given for 3 months, allowing an equivalent cumulative cholecalciferol dose in all arms over this intensive replacement therapy phase. After 3 months, patients with 25OHD levels ≥30 ng/ml will continue on maintenance therapy, administered at 1000 IU cholecalciferol orally daily for 9 months. Outcomes include the median change in the level of 25OHD from baseline to the end of intensive phase; proportions of children in each limb that attain and maintain normal 25OHD levels after intensive replacement and maintenance treatment; the change in levels of bone biomarkers and the incidence of adverse effects with each therapy regimes. Conclusion: The study design of a multicenter randomized controlled trial in children with CKD is described. Trial Registration: Clinical Trials Registry of India; www.ctri.nic.in; CTRI/2015/11/010180.

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Donnai-Barrow or facio-oculo-acoustico-renal (DB/FOAR) syndrome is characterized by typical craniofacial features, ocular findings, sensorineural hearing loss and agenesis of the corpus callosum along with varying degree of intellectual disability. Renal involvement in the form of low molecular weight proteinuria is commonly reported. We report a case of an 8-year-old girl with DB/FOAR syndrome which was genetically confirmed to have a novel frameshift mutation, c.13139del in exon 72 of LRP2, the gene encoding low density lipoprotein receptor related protein 2 precursor, megalin. The child had chronic kidney disease (CKD) and significant proteinuria with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis on renal biopsy. Our case highlights presentation in childhood with this rare syndrome, with significant renal involvement as nephrotic range proteinuria and CKD. Children with DB/FOAR syndrome need close follow up with nephrologist.

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Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a common cause of acute kidney injury in children and has implications of irreversible renal damage. The management depends on the etiology of HUS. Guidelines for India have been formulated to arrive at the etiology with an algorithmic approach based on the epidemiology and the constraints of facilities available for investigations and therapy in the region. Anti-Factor H antibody-associated illness accounts for over half the cases of atypical HUS (aHUS) in Indian children, and prompt plasma exchange and immunosuppression are recommended to lower antibody levels. Since access to eculizumab is limited, the management of other forms of aHUS relies on plasma therapy. Indications for biopsy and concerns around kidney transplantation are highlighted. A brief comparison with current guidelines from other regions has been made.

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Background: Dense deposit disease (DDD), a subtype of C3 glomerulopathy, is a rare disease that occurs secondary to hyperactivity of the alternative complement pathway. Renal biopsy typically reveals electron-dense deposits in the glomerular basement membrane. However, treatment options are limited. Till date, to the best of our knowledge, no evidence exists for specific treatment influencing the disease course. Eculizumab, a monoclonal antibody, has been reported to prevent membrane attack complex formation by binding to C5 and leads to improvement in clinical findings. However, the number of reported cases in which eculizumab was administered, particularly in children, is limited. Subjects and Methods: In this report, we present our experience with three pediatric cases of DDD receiving eculizumab treatment. All three patients were diagnosed with DDD on kidney biopsy. All patients showed acute kidney injury, high blood pressure, proteinuria >1 g/day, and decreased C3 levels. Immunosuppressive therapy, which included high-dose methylprednisolone, prednisolone, mycophenolate mofetil, or plasma exchange (in the third patient), as well as antihypertensive drugs, was administered to all the patients. Eculizumab treatment was initiated early in two patients but was initiated later in the third patient, who underwent dialysis initially. Results: The two patients with early initiation of eculizumab treatment showed significant improvement of proteinuria and renal function within weeks of treatment. C3 levels were normalized in one patient but remained decreased in the other. The third patient showed no response. She ultimately progressed to end-stage renal disease and eventually needed maintenance dialysis. Conclusions: Early initiation of eculizumab was associated with decreased proteinuria and improved renal function in two patients. These findings were in agreement with previous reports on the beneficial effects of eculizumab in DDD patients.

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Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), an important cause of acute kidney injury requiring dialysis in children, is caused by defects in genes encoding the alternative complement pathway. Mutations in noncomplement-related genes are rare, information of therapy and outcome of such patients is limited. We describe a 13-month-old boy with aHUS as a result of compound heterozygous mutations in diacylglycerol kinase gene, possibly triggered by enteroinvasive Escherichia coli infection, with partial response to plasma exchanges. The present case emphasizes the need for a high index of suspicion, appropriate investigation for etiology of the infective trigger, and good supportive care in the management of rare causes of aHUS.

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Nephrocalcinosis in children can arise due to a variety of metabolic conditions and appropriate diagnosis can lead to specific management and has implications in prognosis. Familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC) is a rare disease with varied manifestations which is caused by mutations in CLDN16 and CLDN19, and has a high rate of progression to kidney failure in the second to third decades of life. Early diagnosis aids in retardation of the progression to kidney failure. We present two unrelated patients presenting with nephrocalcinosis and deranged renal function, who had a novel pathogenic variation (c.685C > T; p.Q229X), leading to the diagnosis of FHHNC. Genetic testing is crucial in patients presenting with nephrocalcinosis for diagnosis and prognostication.

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Objective: The survey was conducted to identify current renal biopsy practices in India and compare them with the British Association of Pediatric Nephrology (BAPN, 2015) standards. Methods: A 53-question survey questionnaire was sent to 48 centers across the country by electronic mail. Questions included were related to the number of biopsies performed, indications, prerequisites and procedure of biopsy, monitoring, and complications. The results were compared against the BAPN 2015 standards. Results: Thirty (62.5%) out of 48 centers responded to the questionnaire. Real-time ultrasound was the favored method at 24 (80%) centers. Most (80%) of the biopsies were performed by nephrologists alone. The biopsy was usually (80%) an inpatient procedure with overnight hospitalization; 20% of the centers performed it as a day-care procedure. The 18-gauge needle was preferred by 60% of the centers. Biopsy was achieved with three or fewer passes in 93% of the centers. Almost half (47%) of the centers considered 10 or more glomeruli on light microscopy as adequate to reach a diagnosis. The rates of gross hematuria were <5% in 80% of the centers surveyed. Death following biopsy was reported by two centers. Conclusion: Majority of the centers surveyed across India achieve BAPN standards in most parameters. Such audit of practices against the standards for kidney biopsy enables comparison between units as well as for monitoring of individual center's performance over time.

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Background: Retrospective studies from developed countries indicate an increasing prevalence of acute kidney injury (AKI) in nephrotic syndrome. Prospective information on incidence and determinants of AKI in nephrotic syndrome from developing countries is limited. Methods: This prospective study enrolled consecutive patients with nephrotic syndrome, 1 month–18 years old, admitted to a single tertiary care center. Patients were evaluated daily for the development of AKI using Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes serum creatinine criteria until day 14 or discharge, along with clinical and biochemical information to determine associated risk factors. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was reassessed at 3 months' follow-up. Results: Of 115 patients (72.2% boys) enrolled at median (interquartile range) age 64 (36–111) months, 25 (21.7%) developed AKI. The incidence density of AKI was 3.3 (2.2, 4.8) episodes per 100 person-days. Stage 3 AKI comprised 64% of cases. Steroid-resistant illness, hypoalbuminemia, and low baseline eGFR were independently associated with the occurrence of AKI. AKI recovered completely or partially in 48% and 20% cases, respectively; 20% of patients remained dialysis-dependent and 12% of patients died. Patients with AKI had significantly longer hospital stay, and lower median eGFR at 3-month follow-up, than those without AKI. Conclusions: AKI affects 21.7% of patients admitted with nephrotic syndrome, is predominantly severe, and is associated with adverse outcomes in one-third cases, prolonged hospital stay, and reduced eGFR at discharge and short-term follow-up. Steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, hypoalbuminemia, and low eGFR at admission were independently associated with the occurrence of AKI.

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Objective: This study was planned to study serum cystatin C (CysC) levels in sick neonates admitted in neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) with predisposing risk factor(s) for development of acute kidney injury (AKI). We evaluated serum levels of CysC and creatinine in sick neonates. Methods: Ninety-four sick neonates with prematurity, sepsis, respiratory distress, and/or perinatal asphyxia requiring NICU admission were enrolled. Serum levels of creatinine and CysC were measured on day 3 of life. Results: Serum levels of both cystatin C and creatinine were significantly elevated in neonates who developed AKI versus those who did not (CysC: 2.18 ± 0.59 vs. 1.91 ± 0.47 mg/dl, P = 0.04; creatinine: 1.68 ± 0.75 vs. 0.89 ± 0.40, P < 0.001). Levels of CysC were elevated in sick neonates with risk factors of developing AKI. Conclusions: Serum levels of CysC are elevated in sick neonates at risk of AKI. CysC is a useful indicator of risk of AKI in ill neonates.

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Acute kidney injury (AKI) is very common in children admitted to pediatric intensive care and affected children are at increased risk of morbidity and mortality. The epidemiologic characteristics of children with AKI have not been well described in children living in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). This review of the epidemiology of AKI in critically ill children in KSA shows that AKI is common in this population and is chiefly attributed to sepsis, other infections and postcardiac surgery. The occurrence of AKI is linked to increased mortality and length of hospital stay. The severity of AKI correlates with increased inhospital mortality as well as risk of mortality after discharge. A considerable proportion of survivors develop evidence of chronic kidney disease. Cystatin C and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin are useful in enabling early diagnosis of AKI in critically ill children.

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